This task is assigned by Ms. Megha Trivedi to grasp the meaning of the Romantic Age by studying the major events that influenced the literary scene of the time.
Introduction: The Age of Revolutions
The American and French Revolutions were not merely political earthquakes; they were profound cultural and textual events that reshaped the Western imagination. As students of literature, we encounter these revolutions most vividly through the words they generated: the Enlightenment philosophy underpinning them and the literary responses they provoked. Consider the pamphleteering fervor ignited by Thomas Paine's Common Sense (1776), a masterclass in persuasive rhetoric that crystallized American grievances. Conversely, the French Revolution's radical ideals found voice in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (1789), a document echoing Enlightenment thought yet destined for a far bloodier trajectory. The revolutions became potent literary subjects, inspiring both utopian visions and profound anxieties. Early Romantic poets like Wordsworth hailed the French dawn, while later writers like Mary Shelley (Frankenstein, 1818) explored the monstrous potential of unchecked revolutionary fervor. Whitman would later sing of America's democratic experiment, while Dickens (A Tale of Two Cities, 1859) immortalized the Terror's brutality.
This blog explores how texts shaped, reflected, and critiqued these foundational revolutions, examining the powerful interplay between political upheaval and literary expression.
The American Revolution: From Rebellion to Nationhood
"There are the times that try men's souls."
Thomas Paine, The American crisis (1776)
The American Revolution was a pivotal moment in history, a period where thirteen colonies defied the world's most powerful empire to forge their own destiny. It wasn't a sudden explosion, but a slow, simmering fire that grew from a few sparks of discontent into a full-blown inferno of revolution. Let's delve deeper into the key moments that defined this incredible journey.
The Roots of Discontent: "No Taxation Without Representation!"
The story of the Revolution truly begins with a shift in British policy. For decades, the colonies had enjoyed a period of "salutary neglect," where Britain's hands-off approach allowed them to develop their own systems of self-governance. But the costly French and Indian War changed everything. Britain was left with a massive debt and believed the colonies should contribute to their own defense and the empire's coffers.
This led to a series of acts that were meant to raise revenue but instead ignited a firestorm of protest. The Stamp Act of 1765, which taxed legal documents, newspapers, and even playing cards, was particularly galling. It didn't just affect trade; it touched the daily lives of every colonist. The core of their argument wasn't that they didn't want to pay taxes, but that they had no say in the matter. They had no elected representatives in the British Parliament, a situation they saw as a fundamental violation of their rights as Englishmen. This powerful idea that a government's authority must come from the consent of the governed was distilled into the rallying cry, "No taxation without representation!" It was a call to arms for their political rights, not just a protest against high prices.
The Spark that Ignited the Flames: From Protests to Rebellion
Tensions escalated dramatically in the years leading up to the war. The Boston Massacre of 1770 was a pivotal moment. A group of British soldiers, harassed by a mob of colonists, fired into the crowd, killing five people. While it was a relatively small incident, colonial propagandists, like Paul Revere, used it to turn the tide of public opinion. It became a powerful symbol of British tyranny and brutality.
But the real point of no return was the Boston Tea Party in 1773. In protest of the Tea Act, which gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales, a group of colonists disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded three ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor. It was a bold, defiant act that enraged the British government. In response, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, which the colonists quickly dubbed the "Intolerable Acts." These laws shut down Boston Harbor, restricted town meetings in Massachusetts, and allowed British soldiers to be quartered in private homes. This heavy-handed punishment backfired spectacularly, uniting the colonies in their shared outrage and convincing them that they had to stand together. As Patrick Henry famously declared in 1775, "I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death!"
A New Vision for a Nation: The Declaration of Independence
By 1775, the first shots of the war had been fired at Lexington and Concord, and a full-scale conflict was underway. The Second Continental Congress, meeting in Philadelphia, had to make a choice: reconcile with Britain or declare independence. Thomas Paine's pamphlet, Common Sense, played a crucial role in swaying public opinion toward the latter. Paine's powerful, accessible language laid out a clear argument for a complete break, arguing that it was simply "common sense" for the American colonies to govern themselves.
The result was one of the most important documents in human history: the Declaration of Independence. Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson, it wasn't just a list of grievances against King George III; it was a philosophical statement that articulated a new vision for government. It boldly stated, "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." This was a revolutionary concept that the government's legitimacy came from its protection of these fundamental rights. It also outlined the principle that if a government fails to protect those rights, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
The Long, Hard Road to Victory: The War Itself
The Revolutionary War was not a foregone conclusion. The Continental Army, led by General George Washington, was often outmanned, outgunned, and poorly supplied. The soldiers endured unimaginable hardships, most notably the brutal winter encampment at Valley Forge in 1777-1778, where disease, starvation, and frostbite were rampant. Washington's leadership, however, was crucial. He was a master of strategy and, perhaps more importantly, a symbol of unwavering resolve.
The turning point of the war came at the Battle of Saratoga in 1777. The American victory convinced France, a longtime rival of Britain, to formally recognize the United States and provide crucial military and financial support. This was a game-changer. The French Navy, in particular, proved vital. The final major battle of the war, the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, was a combined effort of American and French forces that trapped the main British army and forced their surrender.
The Birth of a Nation: Legacy and Lasting Impact
"All men are created equal"
The war formally ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, where Britain officially recognized the independence of the United States. The American Revolution's impact stretched far beyond its borders. It inspired revolutions in France and Latin America and became a global symbol of the struggle for liberty and self-determination.
However, the legacy is not without its complexities. While the Declaration of Independence spoke of "all men are created equal," this ideal was not fully realized for many. Enslaved African Americans, Native Americans, and women were largely excluded from the promise of freedom and equality. The "Founding Fathers" themselves grappled with this paradox, as many were slaveholders themselves.
The revolution created a new kind of nation, one founded on ideals rather than lineage. It established the principles of popular sovereignty, individual rights, and constitutional government that continue to shape the United States and influence political thought around the world. As Benjamin Franklin wisely warned his fellow signers, emphasizing the need for unity, "We must all hang together, or assuredly we shall all hang separately." They chose unity, and in doing so, they created a new world.
The French Revolution (1789–1799)
Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité
The French Revolution (1789-1799) began under King Louis XVI due to massive debt, unfair taxes, and deep social inequality. The commoners, over 90% of the population, carried the burden while the clergy and nobility enjoyed privileges. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, the Third Estate broke away in 1789, forming the National Assembly and sparking events like the storming of the Bastille and the abolition of feudal privileges.
Tensions with the king led to his failed escape in 1791 and the monarchy's fall in 1792. France became a republic, and both Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were executed. The Reign of Terror (1793-1794) saw thousands executed under Robespierre's rule before his downfall. The Directory (1795-1799) followed, but instability remained. In 1799, Napoleon Bonaparte seized power, ending the Revolution but spreading its ideals of liberty, equality, and nationalism across Europe.
Causes
The French Revolution began because of serious financial problems and deep social inequality under King Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792). French society was divided into three estates — the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. The first two estates enjoyed privileges such as tax exemptions, while the commoners, who made up over 90% of the population, carried most of the tax burden. Rapid population growth to over 28 million people by 1789 created unemployment and poverty, while poor harvests led to food shortages and starvation. A rising class of wealthy commoners, the bourgeoisie, challenged the aristocracy’s privileges, further straining relations. Enlightenment thinkers inspired people to question the old order, seeing it as corrupt and tyrannical. Public resentment was directed at Queen Marie Antoinette, who symbolized extravagance. Meanwhile, France’s debt, worsened by expensive wars like the American Revolution, pushed the country to crisis.
The Gathering Storm (1774–1788)
In 1774, Louis XVI inherited a deeply troubled kingdom. At only 19 years old, he relied heavily on his ministers and involved France in the American War of Independence, which weakened Britain but greatly increased France’s debt. In 1786, Finance Minister Charles-Alexandre Calonne proposed financial reforms, but the aristocratic Assembly of Notables refused, insisting that only the Estates-General could approve such changes. This assembly had not met for 175 years, and the king resisted calling it. When the parliament (high courts) also opposed the reforms, riots broke out, including the Day of Tiles in 1788. Facing mounting pressure, Louis XVI appointed the popular Jacques Necker as finance minister and finally agreed to summon the Estates-General for May 1789.
Rise of the Third Estate (1789)
"Men are born and remain free and equal in rights."
— Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, 1789
The elections for the Estates-General involved around 6 million people and produced 25,000 lists of grievances (cahiers de doléances). When the assembly opened on 5 May 1789, the Third Estate had 578 deputies, compared to 282 for the nobility and 303 for the clergy. Despite having double representation, the Third Estate’s influence was blocked because votes were counted by estate rather than by head. When their demand for voting by head was rejected, the Third Estate refused to verify its elections and eventually declared itself the National Assembly on 17 June 1789. Three days later, locked out of their meeting hall, they gathered in a tennis court and swore the Tennis Court Oath, promising to write a new constitution. On 14 July, the storming of the Bastille became a symbol of the Revolution. That summer, rural uprisings known as the Great Fear led to the abolition of feudal privileges on 4 August, and later that month, the Assembly adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
People’s Monarchy (1789–1791)
The king resisted reforms, demanding an absolute veto. On 5 October 1789, the Women’s March on Versailles brought thousands to demand bread and force the royal family to move to Paris. The Assembly then targeted the Catholic Church, seizing its lands and requiring clergy to swear loyalty to the state under the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (July 1790). Initially, there were celebrations like the Festival of the Federation on 14 July 1790, marking unity between people and monarch. But in June 1791, the king’s failed escape, known as the Flight to Varennes, destroyed public trust. The Champ de Mars Massacre in July 1791, where troops fired on demonstrators, deepened divisions. A new constitution in September 1791 created a constitutional monarchy, but political splits remained.
Birth of the Republic (1792–1793)
The Legislative Assembly split into factions: moderate Feuillants, radical Jacobins, and war-supporting Girondins. France declared war on Austria in April 1792. In August, the storming of the Tuileries Palace overthrew the monarchy, and September brought the September Massacres, where over 1,100 prisoners were killed. On 22 September 1792, France declared itself a republic. King Louis XVI was executed in January 1793, followed by Marie Antoinette in October.
Reign of Terror (1793–1794)
Power shifted to radical Jacobins led by Robespierre, Danton, and Marat. Faced with civil war and foreign invasion, the Committee of Public Safety took control, enforcing mass conscription and cracking down on opposition. From September 1793 to July 1794, thousands were executed, including aristocrats, clergy, former revolutionaries, and ordinary citizens. Robespierre promoted the Cult of the Supreme Being, but his growing power alarmed others. In July 1794, he was overthrown and executed, ending the Terror.
Thermidorians & the Directory (1794–1799)
After Robespierre’s fall, the Thermidorians dismantled Jacobin rule. The Jacobin Club was closed in November 1794, and uprisings from both royalists and radicals were suppressed. The Constitution of Year III (1795) established the Directory. France’s armies, led by Napoleon Bonaparte, achieved major victories, especially in Italy (1796–1797). On 9 November 1799, Napoleon seized power in the Coup of 18 Brumaire, ending the Revolution and starting the Napoleonic era.
"Revolutions are not made; they come"
-Wendell Phillips
| Aspect | American Revolution | French Revolution |
|---|---|---|
| Causes | Colonialism, Taxation without representation, restriction of civil liberties by British rule | Social inequality, fiscal crisis, abuse of privileges by nobility and clergy |
| Ideological Basis | Principles of natural rights, individual interest, republicanism | Ideals of liberty, equality, fraternity, collective rights, general will, social contracts, etc. |
| Goals | Independence from British rule, self-governance, individual interests, limited government, etc. | Reform of the absolute monarchy, the establishment of a constitutional government, collective interests, general will, social justice, etc. |
| Outcomes | Establishment of a federal republic government, the United States of America | Abolition of the monarchy, and establishment of a republic (later the Napoleonic Empire) |
| Leadership | Figures like George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin | Figures like Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, Napoleon Bonaparte |
| Inspiration | Inspired by English liberals and Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke, Thomas Paine, etc. | Inspired by radical French thinkers like Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu, etc. |
| Global Impact | Inspired revolutions in Latin America and Europe, promoted democratic ideals | Spread of revolutionary ideals across Europe, rise of nationalism, secularism |
| On Slavery | Did not end slavery. It was dismantled after the Civil War. | Slavery was initially made illegal in 1794 in colonies, however, it was only in 1848 that it was completely dismantled. |
Literary Landscape
Literature influences social, political, and cultural landscape of the society and these revolutions are not exceptions. How was the literature during these times and their influence on public opinion is discussed below.
The American Revolution's Legacy
While less direct, the American Revolution still influenced English literature by providing a powerful political precedent and new philosophical concepts.
A Precedent for Change:
The successful rebellion demonstrated that it was possible to break away from an established monarchy and form a new government based on the principles of republicanism and natural rights. This event provided a powerful precedent for the more radical ideas that would later emerge in France. The conservative statesman Edmund Burke, for example, used the American Revolution in his Reflections on the Revolution in France to argue that the American colonists' rebellion was a conservative one that sought to preserve traditional rights, while the French Revolution was a dangerous, radical experiment.
The Power of Political Prose:
The revolution's most enduring literary contributions were its political documents. Thomas Paine's Common Sense was a bestseller in both America and Britain, serving as a model for persuasive, accessible political writing that could galvanize public opinion. This direct, polemical style was new and influential form of literature.
Shifting Identity:
The creation of the United States challenged the dominance of the British literary tradition and inspired writers to consider themes of nationalism, freedom, and the character of a new society. The Federalist Papers, though a series of essays arguing for the U.S. Constitution, stand as a literary example of the rational, Enlightenment-era political philosophy that the revolution made possible.
The French Revolution's Profound Influence
The French Revolution had the more immediate and dramatic impact on English literature. Its ideals of "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" deeply resonated with the first generation of Romantic poets, who were young at the time and saw the revolution as a symbol of hope for a new, fairer world.
Initial Enthusiasm:
"Bliss was it in that dawn to be alive,
But to be young was very heaven!"
-The Prelude William Wordsworth
Poets like William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge were initially fervent supporters. Their early work, including the groundbreaking Lyrical Ballads (1798), explored revolutionary themes of individual freedom and the dignity of common people. Wordsworth's epic poem, The Prelude, chronicles his youthful excitement and fervour.
Disillusionment and Reaction:
This initial enthusiasm was short-lived. The later violence of the Reign of Terror and the rise of Napoleon shattered these utopian dreams. This disillusionment led many poets to turn away from radical politics toward introspection and the power of nature. Coleridge's poem France: An Ode explicitly charts this shift, moving from his early revolutionary support to a sense of betrayal.
Later Romantics:
The next generation of poets, including Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and John Keats, inherited this revolutionary legacy. They were not disillusioned in the same way and often embraced the revolutionary spirit of rebellion. Shelley, in particular, was a vocal radical who championed social justice and resistance to tyranny in works like The Mask of Anarchy, which was a direct response to the Peterloo Massacre.
Conclusion
These revolutions reshaped not only the political and social scene for future generations but also the writing of the coming period. They help us understand the context and conditions in which literary works are produced.
References
Mark, Harrison W.. "French Revolution ." World History Encyclopedia. World History Encyclopedia, 12 Jan 2023, https://www.worldhistory.org/French_Revolution/. Web. 04 Aug 2025.
Vajiram & Ravi. “French Revolution, Causes, Major Events, Impacts, UPSC Notes.” Vajiram & Ravi, 15 Apr. 2025, https://vajiramandravi.com/upsc-exam/french-revolution/. Accessed 8 Aug. 2025
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