The Soul of the Text: A Comprehensive Guide to the Six Schools of Indian Poetics

This blog is assigned by Prof. Dilip Barad on Indian Poetics. The units of Indian Poetics were eruditely taught by Prof. Vinod Joshi in two weeks long lecture series 

Introduction

The systematic study of literature in India is not merely a critique of form; it is a profound philosophical quest to discover the Atman (Soul) of poetry. While the Western critical tradition, rooted in Aristotle, often anchors itself in mimesis (imitation) and structural representation, the Indian tradition asks a more metaphysical question: What is the essential, animating element that transforms ordinary language into a work of art?

Beginning with Bharata Muni’s monumental Natyashastra (c. 200 BCE) and evolving through centuries of intense dialectic debate among scholars like Anandavardhana, Abhinavagupta, and Kuntaka, Sanskrit poetics identified six distinct approaches to this question. Known as the Shad-Prasthanas (The Six Schools), these frameworks decode the mechanics of language, the ontology of art, and the ultimate spiritual goal of aesthetic relish. This comprehensive study explores these schools in deep detail, moving from the external architecture of language to the internal landscape of aesthetic bliss.

Indian Aesthetics vs. Indian Poetics: Clarifying the Scope

Classical Indian thought draws a distinct—yet deeply interconnected—line between Aesthetics and Poetics. Poetics provides the technical tools, while Aesthetics explains the ultimate philosophical experience.

Feature	Indian Poetics (Kāvyaśāstra)	Indian Aesthetics (Saundaryaśāstra)
Primary Focus	The systematic science of literary expression and linguistic structures.	The philosophical inquiry into beauty, emotion, and the spectator's experience.
Core Questions	How does language create an aesthetic effect? What makes poetry poetic?	What is aesthetic pleasure? How does art lead to spiritual transcendence?
Key Elements	Metaphor, imagery, style, figures of speech (Alamkara), and suggestion (Dhvani).	Emotion (Bhava), aesthetic relish (Rasa), and universal consciousness.
Ultimate Goal	Explains how a poem or play works structurally.	Explains why art matters and its capacity to elevate the soul.

Overview: The Six Schools of Indian Poetics

Before diving into the intricacies of each theory, here is a comparative overview of the six major schools, their founders, and their central definitions of the "Soul" of poetry.

School	Key Theorist(s)	Key Text	The "Soul" of Poetry (Atman)
1. Alamkara	Bhamaha, Udbhata	Kavyalamkara	EMBELLISHMENT: Figurative language and poetic ornaments.
2. Riti	Vamana, Dandin	Kavyalamkara Sutra Vritti	STYLE / DICTION: The specific, artistic arrangement of words (Visista padarachana).
3. Rasa	Bharata Muni, Abhinavagupta	Natyashastra	AESTHETIC EMOTION: The evocation of a universalized emotional state (Rasa).
4. Dhvani	Anandavardhana	Dhvanyaloka	SUGGESTION: The implied or unsaid meaning (Vyanjana).
5. Vakrokti	Kuntaka	Vakroktijivita	OBLIQUITY / DEVIATION: Striking, artistic deviation from factual speech.
6. Auchitya	Kshemendra	Auchitya Vichara Charcha	PROPRIETY: The appropriateness and proportion of all poetic elements.

Detailed Analysis of the Six Schools

1. The Alamkara School (The School of Ornamentation)

Chronologically the earliest formal school of poetics, the Alamkara school treats poetry primarily as a crafted artifact.

• The Core Definition: Bhamaha defined poetry simply as: "Śabdārthau sahitau kāvyam" (Word and meaning together constitute poetry). He argued that just as a woman's face, no matter how inherently beautiful, does not truly shine without ornaments, poetry requires Alamkara (embellishment) to separate it from mundane speech.
• The Mechanics: This school posits that the distinction between ordinary speech and poetry lies entirely in figurative language. They classified embellishments into two primary domains:
• Shabdalankara (Ornaments of Sound): Reliance on phonetic brilliance, such as Anuprasa (alliteration) and Yamaka (chime/repetition).
• Arthalankara (Ornaments of Sense): Semantic embellishments like Upama (simile), Rupaka (metaphor), and Atishayokti (hyperbole).

2. The Riti School (The School of Style/Diction)

Vamana shifted the critical focus from "what" is said (and how it is decorated) to "how" it is structurally arranged.

• The Core Definition: Vamana boldly declared: "Rītirātmā kāvyasya" (Style is the soul of poetry). He defined Riti as Visista padarachana (the special, harmonious arrangement of words).
• The Mechanics (Gunas and Doshas): Vamana argued that this "special arrangement" is achieved by incorporating Gunas (literary merits) and rigorously avoiding Doshas (literary flaws). The primary Gunas include Madhurya (sweetness/melody), Ojas (vigor/brilliance), and Prasada (lucidity/clarity).
• The Three Ritis (Styles):
  1. Vaidarbhi: Considered the ideal, supreme style. It possesses all the Gunas, avoids long compound words, and is sweet and melodic (ideal for romance).
  2. Gaudi: The grandiose, bombastic style. It relies heavily on Ojas, utilizing long, complex compounds and harsh phonetic sounds (ideal for fury or war).
  3. Panchali: The middle path; a soft style utilizing short compounds, emphasizing sweetness and clarity.

3. The Rasa School (The School of Aesthetic Relish)

At the absolute epicenter of Indian Aesthetics is the Rasa Theory. While initially formulated for dramaturgy, it was later universally applied to all literature.

• The Core Definition: Rasa literally translates to "juice," "essence," or "flavor." It is the transcendental emotional essence distilled from the art and "tasted" by the Sahrudaya (the sensitive, empathetic reader). Bharata Muni established its supremacy stating: "Na hi rasād ṛte kaścid arthaḥ pravartate" (No composition can proceed without Rasa).
• The Rasa Sutra: Bharata provided the foundational formula for the creation of aesthetic emotion:

"Vibhāva-anubhāva-vyabhicāri-saṃyogād rasa-niṣpattiḥ"
(Rasa is produced by the combination of Determinants, Consequents, and Transitory States acting upon a Permanent Mood).

• The Four Pillars of Rasa:
  1. Sthayibhava (Permanent Mood): The innate, dormant psychological emotion residing within the spectator (e.g., love, grief, fear).
  2. Vibhava (Determinants/Stimulants): The causes in the text. It includes the Alambana (the primary object, like the hero or heroine) and the Uddipana (the enhancing environment, like a dark forest, rain, or moonlight).
  3. Anubhava (Consequents): The physical manifestations that express the emotion (e.g., a side-long glance, tears, or Sattvika bhavas like involuntary trembling and sweating).
  4. Vyabhicharibhava (Transient Feelings): Fleeting, temporary mental states that feed the dominant mood (e.g., anxiety, joy, doubt, exhaustion).

The Navarasa (The Nine Rasas)

Bharata identified eight original Rasas. Centuries later, the Kashmiri Shaivite philosopher Abhinavagupta added the ninth—Shanta (Tranquility). Abhinavagupta philosophized that tasting Rasa is Brahmānanda-sahodara—an experience akin to supreme spiritual bliss, where the ego collapses into universal consciousness.

Rasa (Aesthetic Flavor)	Sthayibhava (Permanent Mood)	Color	Presiding Deity
Śṛṅgāra (Erotic/Romance)	Rati (Love)	Shyam (Dark Blue/Green)	Vishnu
Hāsya (Comic/Mirth)	Hasa (Laughter)	Sita (White)	Pramatha
Kāruṇya (Pathetic/Compassion)	Shoka (Grief)	Kapota (Dove Grey)	Yama
Raudra (Furious/Terror)	Krodha (Anger)	Rakta (Red)	Rudra
Vīra (Heroic)	Utsaha (Energy)	Gaura (Gold)	Indra
Bhayānaka (Terrible/Fear)	Bhaya (Fear)	Krishna (Black)	Kala (Time)
Bībhatsa (Odious/Disgust)	Jugupsa (Aversion)	Nila (Blue)	Mahakala
Adbhuta (Marvelous/Wonder)	Vismaya (Astonishment)	Pita (Yellow)	Brahma
Śānta (Tranquil/Peace)	Sama (Serenity/Detachment)	Kunda (Jasmine White)	Narayana

4. The Dhvani School (The School of Suggestion)

In the 9th century, Anandavardhana revolutionized poetics with his text, Dhvanyaloka, elevating the semantic power of language over its structural form.

• The Core Definition: Anandavardhana argued that the true soul of poetry is Dhvani (Suggestion). Drawing from the grammarian concept of Sphota (the burst of eternal meaning from transient sounds), he defined Dhvani as:

"Yatrārthaḥ śabdo vā tam artham upasarjanīkṛta-svārthau vyanktaḥ kāvyaviśeṣaḥ sa dhvanir iti..."
(That kind of poetry wherein the conventional meaning and the word subordinate themselves to suggest a higher, implied meaning is called Dhvani).

• The Three Layers of Meaning:
  1. Abhidha / Vachya (Literal): The direct, primary dictionary definition.
  2. Lakshana / Lakshya (Indicative): The secondary, metaphorical meaning used when the literal meaning fails.
  3. Vyanjana / Vyangya (Suggested): The hidden, resonating "echo" of meaning grasped only by the refined intellect.
• Dhvanikavya (Supreme Poetry): When the suggested meaning completely dominates the literal text, it is called Uttama Kavya (the highest poetry). Anandavardhana brilliantly noted that entire epics have an overarching suggested Rasa (Angi Rasa); the Ramayana fundamentally suggests Karuna (Pathos), while the Mahabharata ultimately suggests Shanta (Peace).

5. The Vakrokti School (The School of Obliquity)

Formulated by Kuntaka in the 11th century via his Vakroktijivita, this school heavily anticipates modern linguistic stylistics (such as Russian Formalism's "defamiliarization").

• The Core Definition: Kuntaka boldly declared: "Vakroktiḥ kāvya jīvitam" (Oblique expression is the life of poetry). He argued against the Dhvani school, asserting that "suggestion" is simply a byproduct of the poet's unique, striking skill (Kavi-vyapara).
• Deviation from the Norm: Kuntaka separated ordinary, factual, scientific speech (Svabhavokti) from poetry. Poetry demands a "creative deviation from the norm." Saying "the sun set" is Svabhavokti. Saying "the sun, weary of his journey, sank into the ocean's lap" is Vakrokti.
• The Six Levels of Vakrata: Kuntaka meticulously mapped this "strikingness" across six linguistic tiers:
  1. Varna-vinyasa vakrata: Phonetic arrangement (alliteration/rhyme).
  2. Pada-purvardha vakrata: Lexical/base-word obliquity.
  3. Pada-parardha vakrata: Grammatical/affix obliquity.
  4. Vakya vakrata: Sentential obliquity (where figures of speech operate).
  5. Prakarana vakrata: Episodic obliquity (modifying a source story's incident).
  6. Prabandha vakrata: Compositional obliquity (the overarching moral or allegorical twist of the entire work).

6. The Auchitya School (The School of Propriety)

The final major school, established by Kshemendra, acts as the great harmonizing and regulatory force for all previous theories.

• The Core Definition: Auchitya means propriety, proportion, or appropriateness. Kshemendra defined it as:

"Aucityam rasasiddhasya sthiram kāvyasya jīvitam"
(Propriety is the stable life-breath of poetry that is proven in Rasa).

• The Harmonizing Principle: Kshemendra argued that Alamkara, Riti, Dhvani, and Vakrokti are utterly worthless if they are misplaced. A beautiful golden belt looks absurd if worn around the neck. Similarly, utilizing a harsh, bombastic style (Gaudi Riti) during a tender love scene, or employing a highly complex suggested meaning (Dhvani) when a character is in sudden, panicked danger, destroys the aesthetic experience. Propriety dictates that every element must serve the immediate context and the ultimate Rasa.

Conclusion

The evolution of the six schools of Indian Poetics represents a profound journey from the outer "body" of literature to its deepest, resonant "soul." The Alamkara and Riti schools meticulously cataloged how to adorn and construct the physical body of the text. Vakrokti revealed the striking, deviant gait of the poet's imagination. Dhvani taught the reader to listen for the silent, echoing heartbeat of suggestion beneath the words. Auchitya provided the supreme regulatory wisdom, ensuring all parts function in seamless harmony. Finally, the Rasa school revealed the ultimate ontology of art: a highly engineered emotional catalyst designed to transport the human mind from worldly unrest into a state of universalized, spiritual bliss. Mastering these interconnected frameworks allows us to unlock the absolute zenith of human literary expression.

References

• Bharata Muni. The Natyashastra. (~200 BCE – 200 CE).
• Anandavardhana. Dhvanyaloka. (9th Century).
• Kuntaka. Vakroktijivita. (11th Century).
• Kshemendra. Auchitya Vichara Charcha. (11th Century).
• Abhinavagupta. Abhinavabharati and Locana. (10th-11th Century).
• Deshpande, G.T. Abhinavagupta. Sahitya Akademi.
• Barad, Dilip. "Indian Aesthetics and Indian Poetics," Dilip Barad | Teacher Blog.
• Khanam, Bushra & Dr. Darkhasha. "Harmonizing Beauty: A Comparative Study of Western and Indian Approaches to Aesthetics," IJRASET (2025).
• Hegde, Suryanarayana. The Concept of Vakrokti in Sanskrit Poetics: A Reappraisal.
• Chaudhury, Pravas Jivan. "The Theory of Rasa," The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism.

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The Divinity of Dictatorship: Unpacking Theological Power and Religious Satire in George Orwell’s '1984'

This blog is assigned by Prof. Dilip Barad on exploring theological dimensions of George Orwell's 1949 dystopian novel 'Nineteen Eighty-Four'.

Introduction

George Orwell’s '1984' is universally recognized as a chilling political dystopia, a stark warning against the creeping dangers of totalitarianism, surveillance, and language manipulation. However, a purely political reading of the novel only scratches the surface. Beneath the mechanisms of the Party and the watchful eyes of the Thought Police lies a profound and incisive critique of organized religion. In the atheistic society of Oceania, the concept of God is not truly erased; rather, it is hijacked and subsumed by the state to justify absolute, unquestioning control over the individual. This blog explores the deep structural, ritualistic, and ideological parallels between totalitarian dictatorships and religious institutions, analyzing '1984' not just as a political warning, but as a fierce theological satire.

Analysis of Theological Power and Totalitarian Control in George Orwell’s 1984

Executive Summary

The following briefing examines the intersection of religious symbolism and political authoritarianism within George Orwell’s 1984, focusing specifically on the aphorism "God is Power." In the atheistic, dystopic society of Oceania, the concept of God is not erased but rather subsumed by the Party to justify absolute control over the individual.

The analysis identifies several critical takeaways:

• The Transformation of Divinity: The Party replaces traditional theological entities with the concept of "Power," positioning its leaders as "priests of power" who demand the same level of irrational devotion and love previously reserved for deities.
• Collective Immortality: Power is defined as a collective force. By surrendering individual identity and merging with the Party, a person ostensibly achieves immortality, as the Party—unlike the individual—never dies.
• Mind Over Matter: The ultimate objective of the Party is not merely the control of physical actions but the absolute domination of the human mind, emotions, and memory.
• The Mechanics of Devotion: Totalitarianism utilizes the psychological architecture of religion—propaganda, perpetual war (as a form of sacrifice), and the worship of a central figure (Big Brother)—to ensure citizens do not merely obey but actively love their oppressors.

The Presence and Significance of "God" in Oceania

Despite Oceania being presented as an atheistic society, the word "God" appears eight times in the novel. These references are concentrated in the final third of the text (Part 3), marking the transition from Winston Smith’s physical rebellion to his psychological "re-education."

Key References to God

• The Case of Ampleforth: The character Ampleforth, a poet who rewrites literature for the Party, is imprisoned in Room 101 for a "thought crime" involving God. Unable to find a rhyme for the word "rod" while rewriting a poem by Kipling, he used the word "God." This highlights the total lack of space for religious language unless it serves the Party’s immediate mechanical needs.
• The Dual Occurrence of "God is Power": This specific phrase appears twice. First, it is spoken by O’Brien to explain the Party’s philosophy. Second, it is written by Winston Smith after his torture, signaling his total acceptance of the Party’s reality over his own.
• False Gods: The novel refers to traditional religious figures (Bal, Isis, Jehovah) as "false gods," suggesting that the Party views itself as the only "true" successor to these ancient systems of belief.

O’Brien’s Philosophy: The Theology of Power

O’Brien, acting as the intellectual mouthpiece for the Party, defines a new "theology" where political control replaces divine authority. He asserts that the Party members are the "priests of power."

The Nature of Collective Power

The Party’s definition of power rests on the negation of the individual. O'Brien explains that power is collective, and the individual only possesses power by ceasing to be an individual.

Concept	Party Interpretation
Freedom is Slavery	Inverted: Slavery to the Party is the only true freedom from the "failure" of the individual self.
Individualism	A state of doomed failure; the individual is a "cell" that must die.
Immortality	Achieved by merging with the Party, which is eternal and all-powerful.
The "Last Man"	Winston’s initial identity as a defender of the human spirit, which the Party views as an extinct species.

Control Over Reality and Mind

The Party asserts that reality exists only within the human mind, which is itself controlled by the Party. Therefore, if the Party controls the mind, it controls reality.

• Power Over Matter: O'Brien argues that the Party’s control over matter is already absolute; the final frontier is the mind.
• The 2+2=5 Equation: This serves as the ultimate test of psychological submission. To accept that 2+2=5 is to surrender the evidence of one's senses and the laws of logic to the superior "truth" of the Party.

Mechanisms of Totalitarian Conditioning

The document identifies several methods used by the Party to replicate the devotion found in religious structures and redirect it toward political ends.

Surveillance and Propaganda

• Total Surveillance: Winston Smith was under constant observation for seven years without his knowledge, illustrating that the "eyes" of the Party are as omnipresent as those of a deity.
• The Utility of Perpetual War: War is not intended to be won; it is intended to be continuous. It creates a state of permanent crisis that justifies the sacrifice of basic necessities. Like religious fasting, citizens are encouraged to endure hardship and poverty with "fervor" because "the country is at war."

Emotional Engineering

The Party seeks to control not just thoughts, but the very capacity to feel.

• Directed Love and Hate: The Party dictates who should be loved (Big Brother) and who should be hated. This conditioning is so deep that citizens eventually do not require force to obey; they "love" the leader voluntarily, much like a believer loves a god.
• The Corruption of Devotion: George Orwell suggests that the same psychological impulses that lead to religious devotion can be exploited by political leaders to create "mechanical puppets" or robots.

The "Spirit of Man" vs. Totalitarianism

Winston Smith initially rests his hope on the "Spirit of Man"—the belief that the human spirit is indomitable and will eventually rise against despotic rulers. He posits that humanity cannot be suppressed indefinitely and that the "revolutionary nature" of human beings will overturn the Party. However, the Party’s goal is to prove this spirit is a myth.

By the end of the narrative, Winston’s transformation is complete:

• Acceptance of the Alterable Past: He accepts that the past can be rewritten and that his own memories are false.
• Erasure of Memory: He consciously wipes away his knowledge of the innocence of those the Party has executed (e.g., Jones, Aaronson, and Rutherford).
• Final Submission: His writing of "God is Power" on a table in a bar signifies his realization that there is no truth outside of what the Party dictates.

Conclusion: Orwell’s Critique of Power and Religion

The analysis indicates that 1984 serves as a dual critique. It is an indictment of totalitarianism and the corrupting nature of absolute power, but it is also a critique of the structures of religion—specifically the Catholic Church, of which Orwell was a "bitter critic." The document concludes that when a political leader or party assumes the role of a "god" or an "avatar," the result is the inevitable oppression and exploitation of the individual. By equating God with Power, the Party removes the moral and ethical constraints of traditional religion, leaving only the raw, destructive exercise of authority over the mind and body of the citizen.

Analysis of George Orwell’s 1984 as a Religious Satire

Executive Summary

While George Orwell’s 1984 is traditionally analyzed as a political satire of totalitarianism, a deep reading reveals a deliberate and incisive critique of organized religion, specifically the Catholic Church. This briefing document outlines the structural, ritualistic, and ideological parallels between the fictional state of Oceania and religious institutions. Orwell’s personal history—including his transition from Anglicanism to atheism and his observations of the Church’s collaboration with fascist regimes during the Spanish Civil War—serves as the foundation for this critique. The central argument posits that the Party functions not merely as a political entity but as a religious order that replaces the worship of God with the worship of power, utilizing the psychological habits of faith to maintain absolute control.

Structural and Symbolic Parallels

The world of 1984 mirrors religious frameworks through its geopolitical divisions, social hierarchies, and symbolic icons.

The Three Superstates and Abrahamic Faiths

The novel divides the world into three superstates: Oceania, Eurasia, and East Asia. These entities are in a state of perpetual conflict, which parallels the historical and ideological tensions between the three major Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

The Image of Big Brother as Divinity

Big Brother serves as the "primordial image of God." Within the Party's ideology, the phrase "Big Brother is Watching You" is recontextualized from a threat of surveillance to an assurance of divine providence.

• Omnipresence: The Party suggests Big Brother is always watchful to care for the citizen, much like the religious concept that God is always with the faithful to prevent them from "falling down."
• The Trinity: The pyramidal structure of the Ministries (having three angles) reflects the Christian Trinity: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost.

Social Hierarchy

The Party is organized into a rigid, pyramidal hierarchy reminiscent of religious orders:

• The Inner Party (2%): Function as the "Priests of Power."
• The Outer Party (13-30%): The subordinate administrative class.
• The Proles (85%): The masses, or "bhaktas," who require a deity to follow.

Ritualistic and Sacramental Parallels

The Party utilizes psychological and physical processes that mirror Catholic sacraments to ensure the "purity" of its members.

The System of Confessions

In Oceania, "political confessions" are broadcast on telescreens. Traitors confess to crimes against the state and sexual deviance in a manner strikingly similar to a sinner confessing before a priest in a church.

The Process of Redemption

Winston Smith’s journey through the Ministry of Love (MiniLuv) follows a specific sacramental trajectory:

• Penance and Penitence: The recognition of sin against the Party.
• Mortification: The infliction of physical pain to break the body.
• Purification: The "hellish fire" of Room 101, designed to purge the mind and memory.
• Restoration: The final state where the individual is "saved" and restored to a state of purity, exemplified by Winston’s eventual love for Big Brother.

The Ministry of Love as Dantean Inferno

The physical structure of the Ministry of Love evokes Dante’s Purgatorio and Inferno.

• The Architecture of Hell: The building is a multi-story, pyramidal structure where souls are located based on their "sins."
• Luciferian Figures: O’Brien is framed as a "Lucifer" or "Mephistopheles" figure—the right hand of the supreme power who facilitates the purification/destruction of the soul.

Ideological Control and Behavior

The Party regulates the private lives of its members using moral codes derived from religious tradition.

Category	Religious/Catholic Parallel	Party Application in 1984
Celibacy	Priestly or monastic devotion.	Encouraged for those who dedicate their lives entirely to the Party/Organization.
Marriage	A sacrament for procreation.	Allowed only to produce more "bhaktas" (followers) for the Party; family bonds are discouraged.
Sexuality	Regulated by religious law.	Viewed strictly as a tool for population growth, stripped of pleasure or personal connection.
Devotion	"Brahmacharya" or religious service.	Each moment of life must be for the "Organization" rather than the family unit.

Biographical Evidence for Orwell’s Critique

The interpretation of 1984 as religious satire is supported by Orwell’s documented personal views and earlier literary works.

Personal Atheism and Early Disdain

• Childhood Influences: Despite being raised in the Anglican faith, Orwell expressed a deep-seated hatred for God and Jesus by age 14. In his essay "Such, Such Were the Joys," he noted that while he believed the accounts of God were true, he found the institution of religion miserable.
• Educational Impact: Orwell suggested that making religion part of a school syllabus causes students to hate it, as it becomes a subject they can fail in.

The Spanish Civil War

Orwell’s transition to a vehement critic of the Church solidified during the Spanish Civil War. He observed the Catholic Church collaborating with fascist governments in Italy and Spain to oppose socialism and democratic ideologies. Consequently, he began to view the Church as an "authoritarian regime" and an enemy to Democratic Socialism.

Research into the "Enemy"

According to scholar John Rodden, Orwell was a subscriber to the Catholic Press. He explicitly stated that he read their material to "see what the enemy is up to," indicating that he studied religious rhetoric specifically to critique it.

Precedents in Animal Farm

Orwell’s critique of religion is also present in Animal Farm through the character of Moses the Raven, who speaks of "Sugar Candy Mountain." This is a direct reference to the Christian concept of a celestial city or heaven (reminiscent of Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress), used as a "dangling carrot" to keep the animals submissive.

The Critique of "Power Worship"

The most incisive aspect of Orwell's critique is the danger of "Power Worship." Orwell argued that religious training creates a habit of submission.

• The Habit of Bowing: Once a person becomes accustomed to "going down" or bowing to an idol/deity, they can easily be conditioned to worship any human being or entity that holds power.
• Replacing the Idol: The Party replaces the religious idol with the political leader. If the populace has a habit of being "bhaktas" (devotees), the transition from worshiping God to worshiping a dictator is seamless.
• Anti-Democratic Nature: Orwell suggests that religious practices can be fundamentally anti-democratic because they prioritize the strength of the "spine" to bend rather than to stand.

Conclusion

George Orwell’s '1984' serves as a devastating dual critique. It is not merely an indictment of political totalitarianism, but a profound exposure of the corrupting nature of absolute power masquerading as divine authority. By equating God with Power, the Party strips away the moral constraints of traditional faith, weaponizing the psychological habits of religious submission to enslave the human mind. Whether the idol is a religious figure or a political dictator like Big Brother, Orwell's ultimate warning remains clear: any institution that demands the total surrender of individual thought and the blind worship of power is an enemy to human freedom.

References

• Orwell, George. 1984. Secker & Warburg, 1949.
• Orwell, George. Animal Farm. Secker & Warburg, 1945.
• Bunyan, John. The Pilgrim's Progress. Nathaniel Ponder, 1678.
• Rodden, John. George Orwell: The Politics of Literary Reputation.
• Department of English, MKBU. "God is Power | 1984." YouTube, https://youtu.be/Zh41QghkCUA
• Department of English, MKBU. "Critique of Religion | 1984." YouTube, https://youtu.be/cj29I_MU3cA

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Insights & Learning Outcomes: My Week at the MKBU National Workshop on Academic Writing (2026)

As I navigate my second semester of the M.A. in English Literature at MKBU, balancing my daily coursework with my long-term strategy for the upcoming academic milestones, the week-long National Workshop on Academic Writing arrived at a crucial moment. Organized by our Department of English under the KCG initiative, it bridged the gap between subjective literary reading and objective academic research. Below is a day-by-day reflection of my learning outcomes, mapped directly to the sessions of our esteemed expert speakers.

Day 1: Setting the Paradigm (January 27, 2026)

Topic: The Inaugural Ceremony and the Changing Landscape of Research

Speakers:
Prof. Dilip Barad Dr. K.M. Joshi Hon’ble Vice-Chancellor Prof. B.B. Ramanuj

Learning Outcome: The opening ceremony provided a necessary, sobering look at the macro-level of global academia. I attained a clear understanding of India's current standing in global thesis production and R&D investment, highlighting the urgent need for rigorous, high-quality research output from our universities. The session brilliantly contextualized the core challenge of modern academia: finding the necessary synergy between our "natural intelligence" (human cognitive effort, cultural awareness, and ethical judgment) and the rapidly rising influence of "artificial intelligence." It set a mandate for us to evolve from passive consumers of knowledge into active, tech-savvy contributors who leverage digital tools without losing our critical faculties.

Topic: Academic Writing and Prompt Engineering (Sessions 1 & 2)

Speaker: Prof. (Dr.) Paresh Joshi

Learning Outcome: Prof. Joshi fundamentally shifted my perspective by drawing on De Quincey's famous distinction between the creative "literature of power" (the emotionally driven texts we study as literature students) and the evidence-based "literature of knowledge" (the detached, objective writing required for research). Crucially, I learned the intricate mechanics of prompt engineering for scholarly work. I now understand how to architect precise, context-rich prompts by defining the persona, task, and output format for the AI. This allows me to delegate redundant tasks—such as formatting bibliographies to strict MLA guidelines, checking complex syntax, or analyzing structural flow—to generative AI, reserving my primary cognitive energy for original, theoretical synthesis.

Topic: Academic Writing in English for Advanced Learners (Sessions 1 & 2)

Speaker: Prof. Kalyan Chattopadhyay

Learning Outcome: This afternoon session initiated my understanding of the deep stylistic gaps between standard Indian academic writing and the formal expectations of international publishers like Routledge or Taylor & Francis. I learned the foundational importance of moving away from conversational, descriptive, or overly flowery prose. The session trained me to prioritize extreme objectivity, lexical density, and precision. I learned to replace weak verb phrases with strong nominalizations, recognizing that globally recognized research requires a universally understood, highly formalized academic register that leaves no room for linguistic ambiguity.

Day 2: The Mechanics of International Publishing (January 28, 2026)

Topic: Academic Writing in English for Advanced Learners (Sessions 3 & 4)

Speaker: Prof. Kalyan Chattopadhyay

Learning Outcome: Continuing from the previous day, my most significant technical takeaway was mastering the art of "hedging" through epistemic modality. I learned to utilize cautious, non-absolute modal verbs and phrasing (e.g., "the evidence suggests," "it is highly probable that," instead of "this definitively proves"). This stylistic choice is vital because it accurately reflects the humble, ongoing, and peer-reviewed nature of true academic inquiry. Furthermore, he helped me dismantle the cultural modesty that often holds scholars back from asserting intellectual ownership. I learned how and when to confidently use the authorial "I" in abstracts and introductions to clearly claim my own methodological choices and research interventions.

Topic: Publishing in Indexed Journals (Sessions 1 & 2)

Speaker: Dr. Clement Ndoricimpa

Learning Outcome: Dr. Ndoricimpa demystified the often-daunting world of high-impact databases like Scopus and Web of Science. The greatest asset I gained here was John Swales' "CARS" (Create a Research Space) model, specifically the "Three Moves" framework for writing foolproof introductions. I now know how to strategically build the opening of a paper by: (1) establishing a broad research territory to ground the reader in the current discourse, (2) identifying a highly specific research gap or silence in the existing literature, and (3) forcefully occupying that niche by outlining my own study's precise objectives and methodological approach.

Day 3: Navigating the Ethics of Industry 5.0 (January 29, 2026)

Topic: Detecting AI Hallucination and Using AI with Integrity (Sessions 1 & 2)

Speaker: Prof. (Dr.) Nigam Dave

Learning Outcome: As we integrate generative technology into our daily workflow, the ethical boundaries become incredibly complex. I gained a profound understanding of Industry 5.0 as a Human-Cyber-Physical System (HCPS), where human morality must govern algorithmic output. The session highlighted the dangerous phenomenon of "AI Hallucinations"—instances where large language models, acting as stochastic parrots, confidently fabricate fictitious qualitative data, non-existent authors, or fake journal articles because they lack true semantic understanding. As a humanities scholar whose work relies on theoretical interpretation, I realized just how vulnerable literary studies are to these fabrications. I learned vital strategies to critically audit AI, cross-reference generated citations, and mitigate algorithmic biases.

Topic: Publishing in Indexed Journals (Sessions 3 & 4)

Speaker: Dr. Clement Ndoricimpa

Learning Outcome: Returning to the mechanics of publishing, this session deepened my understanding of how to seamlessly weave a literature review into a research narrative. Instead of merely listing chronological annotations, I learned how to effectively map existing literature thematically to visibly prove where my future studies will intervene in the broader academic conversation. Additionally, the session underscored the absolute necessity of using citation management tools like Mendeley. Mastering this software will allow me to effortlessly organize hundreds of references and safeguard against accidental plagiarism.

Day 4: Mindset and Competitive Excellence (January 30, 2026)

Topic: From Classroom to an Academic Career (Sessions 1 to 4)

Speaker: Dr. Kalyani Vallath

Learning Outcome: This full-day deep dive marked a structural shift toward competitive academic survival. Dr. Vallath brilliantly dismantled the paralyzing "fixed mindset" that so often hinders postgraduate students. By introducing Vygotsky’s "Zone of Proximal Development," she advocated for "free writing" exercises to overcome the fear of perfectionism when tackling complex theoretical texts like those of Foucault or Derrida. Furthermore, she provided a brilliant framework for mapping the vast history of British literature, literary theory, and cultural studies into an easily navigable chronological timeline, ensuring that I can contextualize literary movements against their socio-political backdrops.

Day 5: Synthesis and Strategic Preparation (January 31, 2026)

Topic: From Classroom to an Academic Career (Sessions 5 to 8)

Speaker: Dr. Kalyani Vallath

Learning Outcome: Continuing her intensive focus on career building, Dr. Vallath offered highly practical frameworks for tackling competitive milestones. She proved that cracking these exams requires a shift away from rote memorization toward intelligent inference, logical deduction, and the systematic elimination of distractors in multiple-choice formats. Understanding the epistemological shifts from the Romantic period through Modernism and Postmodernism allows for educated reasoning even when faced with unfamiliar texts. Her sessions helped me synthesize the week’s lessons into an actionable, daily methodology.

Conclusion: Bridging the Gap

The MKBU National Workshop on Academic Writing was far more than a series of lectures; it was a comprehensive intellectual transformation. Over these five days, the challenging terrain of contemporary academia was demystified. My mandate moving forward is clear: I must strictly adhere to international publication standards and maintain unyielding ethical integrity against digital hallucinations.

With my sights set on the NET exam in December 2026 or January 2027, this workshop has completely validated my preparation strategy. The insights gained will be instrumental as I dedicate two hours daily to focused preparation alongside my regular study schedule, scaling up to 6-8 hours daily during university vacations. The gap between being a student of literature and becoming a producer of academic knowledge feels significantly smaller today.

The Architecture of the Invisible: Epistemic Violence, Digital Labour, and Indigenous Representation in Aranya Sahay’s Humans in the Loop (2024)

This blog is assigned by Prof. Dilip Barad based on the worksheet he prepared for the movie screening. 

Introduction: The Myth of the Autonomous Machine
The prevailing global narrative surrounding Artificial Intelligence is one of sterile, disembodied magic. We are repeatedly sold the myth of the "autonomous machine"—a self-sustaining, algorithmic brain functioning flawlessly in the ethereal cloud, entirely devoid of human messiness. However, the stark, material reality is that the entire architecture of global AI is built upon the exhausted shoulders of thousands of invisible human hands. As part of an ongoing exploration into contemporary film and digital culture, guided by the analytical frameworks provided in Prof. Dilip Barad’s Film Studies worksheet, this blog post attempts a deep dive into Aranya Sahay’s devastatingly brilliant 2024 film, Humans in the Loop.

The film serves as a necessary corrective to the Silicon Valley mythos. It follows the life of Nehma, an Adivasi woman from the rural landscapes of Jharkhand, who finds herself thrust into the monotonous, precarious, and grossly underpaid world of AI data-labelling. Through her lived experience, Sahay masterfully exposes the harsh realities of the digital economy, highlighting the violent clash between rigid algorithmic logic and rich indigenous knowledge. This blog will systematically unpack the film through various critical lenses—ranging from Marxist Film Theory to Epistemology and Structuralism—to reveal how the cinematic apparatus renders the invisible visible.

Pre-Viewing Task: The Socio-Technical Landscape

Before one can adequately analyze the cinematic techniques Sahay employs, it is crucial to establish the socio-economic frameworks that govern Nehma’s claustrophobic world. The film is fundamentally a critique of modern techno-capitalism and its reliance on invisible labor forces.

1. The Architecture of "Ghost Work"

The global tech industry, headquartered in the affluent spaces of the Global North, relies heavily on a shadow workforce predominantly located in the Global South. This phenomenon, often termed "ghost work," forms the backbone of machine learning. Behind the seemingly seamless magic of generative AI, facial recognition software, and automated content moderation are thousands of human workers spending grueling hours clicking, tagging, bounding, and labeling data. Humans in the Loop places this ghost work at the absolute center of its narrative. By moving the camera away from the sleek tech campuses of California and placing it firmly in rural Jharkhand, the film demystifies AI, exposing it not as a miracle of coding, but as the product of cheap, outsourced manual data entry.

2. Marxist Alienation in the Digital Age

Applying Marxist Film Theory to Nehma’s situation reveals her as the ultimate alienated worker of the 21st century. Karl Marx argued that under capitalism, workers are alienated in four distinct ways: from the products of their labor, from the act of production, from their own human nature, and from other workers. Nehma perfectly embodies this multi-tiered alienation. She spends her days training an Artificial Intelligence system that will likely never benefit her, her family, or her community. She does not own the means of production (the algorithms), nor does she own the data she refines. She is reduced to a biological cog in a massive digital machine, selling her cognitive and visual labor for literal pennies while tech monopolies reap billions in profit.

3. The Illusion of the Autonomous Machine

The invisibility of Nehma's labor is not an accident; it is a design feature of modern capitalism. Tech conglomerates deliberately hide this labor force to maintain the illusion that machines are learning autonomously. If consumers realized that "artificial intelligence" is actually powered by underpaid women in developing nations manually clicking on images of traffic lights and trees, the futuristic allure of the product would shatter. Sahay’s film is a radical act of unmasking; it brings the digital proletariat out of the shadows and forces the audience to confront the hidden human cost of our everyday digital convenience.

Active Watching Task: Cinematic Form and Apparatus Theory

Aranya Sahay does not merely present a socio-political lecture; he utilizes the full arsenal of the cinematic apparatus to make the audience feel Nehma's exploitation. A close reading of the film's form reveals how deeply Sahay understands the medium.

1. Mise-en-scène and Visual Juxtaposition

The film brilliantly constructs a visual dichotomy between two distinct worlds. On one side, we are presented with the lush, organic, textured, and deeply historical landscape of Jharkhand. The cinematography here is sweeping, capturing the rich earth tones and the expansive sky. On the other side, we have the cold, sterile, rigid, and intensely blue glow of the digital interface. Sahay frequently uses tight, restrictive framing when Nehma is working. The camera physically traps her within the boundaries of her workspace, visually representing how the digital economy confines her existence. The glowing rectangular screen becomes a prison cell within her own home.

2. Sound Design as Alienation

The auditory experience of Humans in the Loop is an absolute triumph of sound design, acting as a direct mirror to Nehma’s internal alienation. In her moments of brief respite, the audience is treated to the rich, ambient, layered sounds of her natural environment—wind through the leaves, distant village chatter, the organic hum of life. However, the moment she opens her laptop, this soundscape is violently interrupted. The soundtrack becomes dominated by the repetitive, mechanical, hollow clicks of her mouse and the synthetic, low-frequency hum of the machine. The relentless clicking serves as an auditory metronome ticking away her life force, emphasizing the excruciating tedium of her labor.

3. Apparatus Theory and the Viewer's Complicity

Applying Apparatus Theory—which examines how the cinematic mechanism itself shapes the ideological impact on the viewer—we see that Sahay is playing a highly sophisticated game. The pacing of the film is deliberately slow, methodical, and repetitive. By keeping the camera closely tethered to Nehma’s point of view over her shoulder, the film forces the audience to engage in the act of data-labeling alongside her. We watch a screen, watching a woman, watching a screen. This creates a profound sense of complicity. By forcing us to endure the slow pacing and watch her label image after mundane image, the film aggressively strips away the sleek, futuristic glamour of Artificial Intelligence and turns the cinematic apparatus back on the audience, demanding that we acknowledge our role in the consumption of this ghost work.

Post-Viewing Task 1: Epistemological Violence

Beyond the physical and economic exploitation of labor, Humans in the Loop tackles a profound intellectual theme: AI bias and the clash of deeply incompatible knowledge systems.

1. Algorithmic Bias and Cultural Artifacts

Algorithms are often falsely presented as neutral, objective mathematics. However, the film meticulously demonstrates that algorithms are cultural artifacts. They are predominantly designed by programmers in the West and are trained to recognize and categorize the world through a distinctly Western, capitalist, and often patriarchal lens. When these systems require "training," they demand that the complex, fluid human realities of the Global South be forced into the rigid, pre-determined categories established by the Global North.

> SYSTEM QUERY: IS THIS A ROAD?
> INPUT REQUIRED: [YES] OR [NO]
> ERROR: CULTURAL CONTEXT NOT FOUND.
> AWAITING HUMAN LABEL...

2. Structuralism vs. Indigenous Epistemology

This dynamic can be analyzed powerfully through a Structuralist lens. Structuralism posits that human culture is best understood in terms of its relationship to a broader, overarching system or structure. The AI interface in the film represents the ultimate, unyielding structure—a world defined entirely by fixed data points and binary choices. In stark contrast, Nehma possesses a deep, lived indigenous epistemology. Her Adivasi worldview understands nature, society, and existence in interconnected, non-binary, and spiritually resonant terms. Her knowledge system does not fit neatly into the algorithm's dropdown menus.

3. Digital Colonization and Erasure

The conflict between these two systems results in what can only be described as epistemic violence. For instance, when the AI asks her to categorize an image of a sacred grove of trees, the algorithm only offers utilitarian labels like "Timber Resource," "Park," or "Obstacle." It entirely lacks the vocabulary for "Sacred Space" or "Living Ancestor." As Prof. Dilip Barad rightly points out in his own writings on AI bias, this lack of nuance is not merely a technological glitch; it is a form of digital colonization. The AI actively erases indigenous perspectives by refusing to acknowledge categories of existence outside of its programmed worldview. When Nehma hesitates to label an image, it is not because she is uneducated—it is because the AI lacks the fundamental capacity to comprehend the depth and sacredness of her reality. The machine forces her to flatten her own culture to earn a wage.

Post-Viewing Task 2: Politics of Representation

It is also essential to address how Humans in the Loop navigates the politics of cultural representation. Historically, mainstream Indian cinema has had a disastrous track record regarding the representation of Adivasi communities. They are frequently relegated to the margins of the narrative, depicted either through a lens of extreme, exoticized primitivism or as helpless victims requiring rescue by a saviour from the dominant caste/class.

Sahay aggressively subverts this legacy. Nehma is not a passive subject of history; she is the absolute center of a hyper-modern, globalized narrative. She is an active agent who is, quite literally, shaping the future of global technology with every click of her mouse. While she is undoubtedly exploited by the system, the film grants her immense dignity, agency, and interiority. Her quiet moments of rebellion—such as intentionally mislabeling images that offend her cultural sensibilities—are portrayed as acts of profound resistance against a monolithic digital empire. Furthermore, by centering an Adivasi woman in a narrative about Artificial Intelligence, Sahay breaks the persistent stereotype that technology and the future belong exclusively to urban, upper-class characters, demanding that we recognize the indigenous presence at the very foundation of our digital future.

Conclusion: The Echoes of the Void

Aranya Sahay’s Humans in the Loop is not merely a film; it is a vital, urgent, and necessary sociological document. It shatters the pristine illusions surrounding Artificial Intelligence by forcefully returning our gaze to the exploited, exhausted human hands that build it brick by digital brick.

Through its deliberate pacing, stark visual contrasts, and deeply empathetic portrayal of its protagonist, the film challenges our most deeply held assumptions about progress, the nature of labor, and the hierarchy of knowledge. It forces us to ask uncomfortable questions about the technologies we consume so unthinkingly. Are we building a future that understands the vast, beautiful complexity of the human experience, or are we building a machine that forces us all into narrow, easily digestible binary codes? Nehma’s story leaves us with a lingering, haunting realization: in our relentless, uncritical rush to build artificial intelligence, we are actively participating in the erasure of human nuance.

Works Cited

Barad, Dilip. (2026). WORKSHEET FILM SCREENING ARANYA SAHAY'S HUMANS IN THE LOOP. 10.13140/RG.2.2.11775.06568. 

McDonald, Kevin. Film Theory: The Basics. 2nd ed., Routledge, 2023.

Number Analytics. "Film Theory Essentials: Key Concepts and Frameworks." Number Analytics, 2023, https://www.numberanalytics.com/blog/film-theory-essentials.

Sahay, Aranya, director. Humans in the Loop. India, 2024.

Sui, Z., and S. Wang. "Dogme 25: Media Primitivism and New Auteurism in the Age of Artificial Intelligence." Frontiers in Communication, vol. 10, no. 1659731, 2025, https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2025.1659731.

"Humans in the Loop: Aranya Sahay on Technology, AI, and Our Digital Lives." The Indian Express, 2024, https://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/humans-in-the-loop-aranya-sahay-technology-ai-digital-10391699/.

Vighi, Fabio. Critical Theory and Film: Rethinking Ideology Through Film Noir. Bloomsbury Academic India, 2019.

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Exploring W.H. Auden: Power, War, and Poetry

This blog is written as a task assigned by the head of the Department of English (MKBU), Prof. Dilip Barad. Here is the link to the professor's blog for background reading: Click here.

Part 1: Understanding Difficult Couplets

While reading "Epitaph on a Tyrant," I found the final two lines particularly striking. Following the worksheet instructions, I asked an AI assistant (ChatGPT) to help me unpack this difficult couplet:

"When he laughed, respectable senators burst with laughter,
And when he cried the little children died in the streets."

My Insight & AI Explanation: This chilling couplet perfectly captures the absolute, terrifying power of a dictator. The first line highlights the sycophancy and moral cowardice of political institutions; the "respectable senators" laugh not because the tyrant is funny, but out of fear and a desperate need to appease him. The second line shifts abruptly to the horrific real-world consequences of his moods. His "tears" (personal grievances or petty angers) translate directly into brutal, arbitrary violence against the most innocent. Historically, this reflects the 1930s rise of totalitarian figures, whose personal whims possessed the unchecked power to slaughter millions.

Part 2: Analyzing Themes and Messages

1. What is the main theme of Epitaph on a Tyrant?

The main theme is the terrifying absolute power of totalitarian dictators. It highlights how their pursuit of "perfection" relies on manipulating human weakness, demanding sycophancy, and inflicting brutal violence.

2. What is the central theme of September 1, 1939?

The central theme of "September 1, 1939" is overwhelming dread and disillusionment at WWII's outbreak. It reflects a global climate of fear, totalitarianism, and collapsing peaceful democratic ideals.

3. What message does Auden convey in In Memory of W.B. Yeats?

In "In Memory of W.B. Yeats," Auden conveys that while poets die with human flaws, their art endures. Poetry survives as a healing, unifying human voice across future generations.

Part 3: Writing a Contemporary Poem

Reflecting on the political and social climate of today—where power is often wielded through digital surveillance, algorithms, and media manipulation—I wrote this contemporary version of Auden's poem, capturing the current zeitgeist.

Epitaph on a Modern Leader

Efficiency, he claimed, was his ultimate goal,
And the algorithms he wrote were simple to digest;
He knew our digital fears beating in every chest,
And was deeply invested in firewalls and screens;
When he smiled, the pundits nodded and played their role,
And when he frowned, the drones leveled the distant ravines.

Part 4: The Echoes of a Low Dishonest Decade

An Analysis of "September 1, 1939" Using ChatGPT

Following the instructions in Worksheet 2, after studying Prof. Barad's blog, I used ChatGPT to prompt specific questions about Auden’s "September 1, 1939." The AI generated fascinating insights regarding the imagery, structure, and historical weight of the poem, which I have synthesized into the following analysis.

Sitting in a "dive" on Fifty-second Street, Auden penned this poem as the world stood on the precipice of World War II. It serves as a profound meditation on the outbreak of global conflict, reflecting his deep disillusionment with the political and social climate of the 1930s. The primary themes revolve around fear, isolation, the cyclical nature of human violence, and the desperate need for human connection, famously encapsulated in the plea: "We must love one another or die."

Auden’s masterful use of language grounds the poem's lofty political themes in harsh, modern realities. Through my exploration with ChatGPT, I gained a deeper appreciation for how Auden contrasts the intimate, dimly lit bar with the macrocosm of a world plunging into darkness. The AI highlighted his striking description of New York's "blind skyscrapers," which use their sheer height to project "the strength of Collective Man." This imagery critiques capitalist hubris and the illusion of isolationism, suggesting that these towering structures are completely oblivious to the impending European doom. Structurally, the poem’s tightly controlled, eleven-line stanzas with an irregular meter create a conversational intimacy mixed with underlying anxiety, mirroring the speaker's turbulent state of mind.

The historical context is inescapable. Written on the exact day Hitler invaded Poland, the poem captures the death of what Auden bitterly dubs a "low dishonest decade." He traces the roots of totalitarian aggression back through history, referencing "Linz" (Hitler's hometown) and the cultural psychopathology of a nation that produced such a dictator. He recognizes the universal human flaw of selfishness—"Those to whom evil is done / Do evil in return"—making this new war feel tragic, yet deeply inevitable.

Using ChatGPT allowed me to see beyond the immediate historical references and tap into the poem's psychological depth. The AI pointed out how Auden moves seamlessly from global political critique to an examination of individual responsibility. We are all, as the poem suggests, "children afraid of the night / Who have never been happy or good." This insight helped me realize that Auden is not just blaming dictators; he is diagnosing a universal condition of human ego and isolation.

Classroom Worksheet 

Conclusion

By using ChatGPT to analyze Auden's poem "September 1, 1939," I have gained a deeper understanding of the poem's themes, language, and historical context. I have also developed my skills in literary analysis and interpretation, which will serve me well in my future studies of literature.

References

Auden, W. H. “Epitaph on a Tyrant.” Poets.org, 1940, poets.org/poem/epitaph-tyrant. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.

---. “In Memory of W. B. Yeats.” Poets.org, 1939, poets.org/poem/memory-w-b-yeats. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.

---. “September 1, 1939.” Poets.org, 1939, poets.org/poem/september-1-1939. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.

Barad, Dilip. “Epitaph on a Tyrant | W H Auden | 2021 05 05 | Sem 2 Hybrid Classes.” YouTube, uploaded by DoE-MKBU, 5 May 2012, youtu.be/ZnqPB0mjoq8. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.

---. “In Memory of W.B. Yeats | W.H. Auden | Sem 2: Hybrid Classes | 2021 05 07.” YouTube, uploaded by DoE-MKBU, 7 May 2021, youtu.be/L-85uCBN0SI. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.

---. “September 1 1939 | W H Auden | Sem 2 Hybrid Classes 2021 05 06.” YouTube, uploaded by DoE-MKBU, 6 May 2021, youtu.be/VmGlS-ZT8MU. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.

---. “W.H. Auden’s Poems.” Dilip Barad | Teacher Blog, 22 May 2021, blog.dilipbarad.com/2021/05/wh-auden-poems.html. Accessed 15 Feb. 2026.